Digital-Forensics-in-Cybersecurity Questions and Answers

Comprehensive and Detailed Explanation From Exact Extract:

Real evidence (also called physical evidence) refers to tangible objects that are involved in the crime or relevant to the investigation. A USB flash drive is physical evidence because it is an actual device containing potentially relevant digital data.

Documentary evidence refers to written or recorded information, not physical devices.

Demonstrative evidence is used to illustrate or clarify facts (e.g., models, charts).

Testimonial evidence is oral or written statements provided by witnesses.

Comprehensive and Detailed Explanation From Exact Extract:

Bit-level (or bit-stream) copying captures every bit on the storage media, including files, deleted files, slack space (unused space within a cluster), and unallocated space. This ensures all digital evidence, including artifacts not visible at the OS level, is preserved for analysis.

Copying at the OS level captures only allocated files visible in the file system, missing deleted files and slack space.

Bit-level copying is a cornerstone of forensic best practices as specified in NIST SP 800-86 and SWGDE guidelines.

Timestamp changes and unnecessary information issues are secondary concerns compared to the completeness of evidence.

Comprehensive and Detailed Explanation From Exact Extract:

The/Library/Receiptsfolder on Mac OS X contains receipts that track software installation and updates, including system and application updates. This folder helps forensic investigators determine which updates were installed and when, useful for detecting suspicious or unauthorized software installations like spyware.

/var/spool/cupsis related to printer spooling.

/var/log/daily.outcontains daily system log summaries but not detailed update records.

/var/vmcontains virtual memory files.

NIST and Apple forensics documentation indicate that/Library/Receiptsis a key location for examining software installation history.

Comprehensive and Detailed Explanation From Exact Extract:

In steganography, the carrier is the file or medium used to hide the secret message. In this example, the sound file is the carrier because it contains the hidden message embedded using the least significant bit method. The message is the payload, and the website is merely the distribution platform.

LSB is the embedding technique, not the carrier.

The message is the payload, not the carrier.

The website is not involved in data hiding.

NIST and steganography references clearly define the carrier as the container holding the hidden data.

Comprehensive and Detailed Explanation From Exact Extract:

On Apple iOS devices, deleted files are often moved to a hidden Trash folder before permanent deletion. The directory/.Trashes/501is a hidden folder where deleted files for user ID 501 (the first user created on macOS/iOS devices) are temporarily stored.

This folder can contain files marked for deletion and thus is a prime location for recovery attempts.

/lost+foundis a directory commonly used on Unix/Linux file systems for recovered file fragments after file system corruption but is not the default trash location on iOS.

/Private/etcand/etccontain system configuration files, not deleted user files.

Comprehensive and Detailed Explanation From Exact Extract:

Netstatis a command-line network utility tool used to monitor active network connections, open ports, and network routing tables. In the context of detecting data exfiltration potentially using steganographic methods, netstat can help a forensic investigator identify suspicious or unauthorized network connections through which hidden data may be leaving an organization.

While netstat itself does not detect steganography within files, it can be used to monitor data flows and connections to external hosts, which is critical for identifying channels where steganographically hidden data could be transmitted.

Data Encryption Standard (DES)is a cryptographic algorithm, not a forensic tool.

MP3Stegois a steganography tool for embedding data in MP3 files and is not designed for detection or monitoring.

Forensic Toolkit (FTK)is a forensic analysis software focused on acquiring and analyzing data from storage devices, not network monitoring.

Comprehensive and Detailed Explanation From Exact Extract:

The chain of custody is a documented, chronological record detailing the seizure, custody, control, transfer, analysis, and disposition of evidence. Maintaining this record proves that the evidence was protected and unaltered, which is essential for court admissibility.

Each transfer or access must be logged with date, time, and handler.

Breaks in the chain can compromise the legal validity of evidence.

Comprehensive and Detailed Explanation From Exact Extract:

Mac systems traditionally use the Hierarchical File System Plus (HFS+), which supports features such as journaling and metadata handling suited for Mac OS environments. Newer versions use APFS but HFS+ remains relevant.

NTFS is primarily a Windows file system.

EXT4 is a Linux file system.

FAT32 is a generic cross-platform file system but lacks advanced features.

Comprehensive and Detailed Explanation From Exact Extract:

The Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA) regulates interception and recording of electronic communications and generally requires the consent of both parties involved in a conversation for legal recordings.

This consent requirement protects privacy rights during investigations.

Non-compliance can lead to evidence being inadmissible or legal penalties.

Comprehensive and Detailed Explanation From Exact Extract:

The fundamental tasks for a forensic specialist are to locate potential digital evidence, ensure its preservation to prevent tampering or loss, and prepare the evidence for analysis or legal proceedings. Proper handling maintains the evidentiary value of digital artifacts.

Preservation includes using write-blockers and documenting chain of custody.

Preparation may involve imaging, cataloging, and validating evidence.

Comprehensive and Detailed Explanation From Exact Extract:

File timestamps, including creation time, last modified time, and last accessed time, are fundamental metadata attributes stored with each file on a file system. When files are modified, these timestamps usually update, providing direct evidence about when changes occurred. Examining file timestamps helps forensic investigators identify which files were altered and estimate the time of unauthorized activity.

IP addresses (private or public) are network-related evidence, not stored on the storage media’s files directly.

Operating system version is system information but does not help identify specific file modifications.

Analysis of file timestamps is a standard forensic technique endorsed by NIST SP 800-86 (Guide to Integrating Forensic Techniques into Incident Response) for determining file activity and changes on digital media.

Comprehensive and Detailed Explanation From Exact Extract:

Documenting the scene through photographs preserves the original state of evidence before it is moved or altered. This supports chain of custody and evidence integrity, providing context during analysis and court proceedings.

Photographic documentation is a standard step in forensic protocols.

It ensures the scene is accurately recorded.

Comprehensive and Detailed Explanation From Exact Extract:

TheForwardedEventslog in Windows 7 is specifically designed to store events collected from remote computers via event forwarding. This log is part of the Windows Event Forwarding feature used in enterprise environments to centralize event monitoring.

TheSystemandApplicationlogs store local system and application events.

TheSecuritylog stores local security-related events.

ForwardedEventscollects and stores events forwarded from other machines.

Microsoft documentation and NIST SP 800-86 mention the use of ForwardedEvents for centralized event log collection in investigations.

Comprehensive and Detailed Explanation From Exact Extract:

Least Significant Bit (LSB) insertion involves modifying the least significant bits of image pixel data to embed hidden information. Changes are imperceptible to the human eye, making this a common steganographic technique.

LSB insertion is widely studied and targeted in steganalysis.

It allows covert data embedding without increasing file size significantly.

Comprehensive and Detailed Explanation From Exact Extract:

Forensic Toolkit (FTK) is a comprehensive forensic suite capable of acquiring bit-by-bit images from various devices, including Windows Phone 8, by supporting physical and logical extractions. FTK is widely accepted and used for mobile device forensic imaging.

Data Doctor is primarily a data recovery tool, not specialized for mobile forensic imaging.

Pwnage is related to jailbreaking iOS devices.

Wolf is not a recognized forensic imaging tool for Windows Phone 8.

NIST mobile device forensic standards cite FTK as a preferred tool for mobile device imaging.

Comprehensive and Detailed Explanation From Exact Extract:

Windows uses a swap file (commonly calledpagefile.sys) to extend physical memory (RAM) by temporarily storing data from memory to disk when RAM is insufficient. This allows the system to handle more data than the available RAM.

Linux and Unix typically use dedicated swap partitions or swap files but refer to them differently and manage them in other ways.

Mac OS X uses a paging file system but does not typically use a "swap file" in the Windows sense; it uses dynamic paging files instead.

The terminology "swap file" is most commonly associated with Windows.

Comprehensive and Detailed Explanation From Exact Extract:

On 64-bit versions of Windows operating systems (including Windows 7), 32-bit applications are installed by default into the folderC:\Program Files (x86). This separation allows the OS to distinguish between 64-bit and 32-bit applications and apply appropriate system calls and redirection.

C:\Program Filesis reserved for native 64-bit applications.

C:\ProgramDatacontains application data shared across users.

C:\Windowscontains system files, not program installations.

This structure is documented in Microsoft Windows Internals and Windows Forensics guides, including official NIST guidelines on Windows forensic investigations.